Human inhabitation in the Indian subcontinent is traced to the Paleolithic and Neolithic period dated from about 2500 to 1500 BC. This civilization is considered to be at par with the other civilizations of the world.
Sir John Marshal, the director general of archaeology with his team excavated sites at Sind and Punjab . The ruins at Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district of Sind in the lower Indus and at Harappa on the banks of the Ravi have brought to light the existence of the Indus valley civilization. These excavations were further supported by the discovery in 1931 at Chanhudaro near Mohenjodaro. Traces of the Indus valley civilization was discovered at Rupar in Ambala district and Rangpur, and Lothal in Saurashtra, Bharatpur in Rajasthan, Kalibangan in the Burdwan district of West Bengal are a proof of the existence of the Indus valley civilization. Harappa being the main source of knowledge about the civilization. Historians also call this civilization as the Harappan culture.
FEATURES OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Town Planning
The ruins of Mohenjodaro provide evidence to confirm the existence of a system of planning in the city. The streets were broad and straight cutting each other at right angles. The drains were lined with bricks and manholes to facilitate regular cleaning. This speaks highly of the civilization's advanced nature.
The citadel was the main part of the city built on a raised platform. It consisted of public buildings, a bath, granaries and quarters for providing shelter to the persons propagating religion. The planning of the city brings to light the existence of an active and efficient bureaucracy to administer the activities of the city.
Around the citadel was spread the remaining part of the city where the common people dwelt and pursued their profession. Houses were well planned and were built on both sides of the street. It had flat roofs and was connected by stairs to the upper storeys. They had thick walls and windows were few. Every house had a kitchen with a fireplace and large jars for storing grains or keeping other articles of use. The roofs of houses were flat. Each house had bathrooms with a system of covered drains connected to the main drain of the street. A courtyard and a well were the special features that bring to light the system of planning existing then.
Society
Society in the Indus valley civilization is said to have comprised of three distinct social groups. One group ruled and administered the city; the other group included the merchants who were associated with trade and other business activities in the city. The third group was the laborers who worked in the city. They also included the farmers who cultivated wheat and barley as their main crops. Animals like the buffaloes, sheep’s and pigs and the humped bull were bred. Fish, mutton, beef, poultry and pork are the food they ate. Animals like the elephant, camels and dogs were also domesticated. The discovery of a large number of clay spindles suggests the use of cotton besides woolen and linen fabrics.
Men also seemed to have worn ornaments like fillets, necklaces, finger rings and armlets. Women were fond of ornaments like earrings, bangles, bracelets, necklaces, girdles and anklets made of shell, beads, gold and silver and copper. Razors, bronze mirrors and combs made of ivory speak of the people interest in personal upkeep. Toys like the whistle and carts besides puppets, rattles and dolls made of terracotta speaks greatly about the attitude of the people in child care. People enjoyed playing in dice and marble. Gambling was a favorite past time of the elder members in the society.
Occupation
The discovery of various equipments such as axes, knives, spears and daggers made of bronze and copper suggest metal work as a major profession commonly pursued in the towns. Copper was used for making weapons and utensils besides ornaments. Spinning, weaving and pottery also formed important occupation. Pottery in red with designs painted in black resembling shapes such as interesting circles, pipal, leaves, peacocks were on it. The discovery of numerous seals made of clay with figures of animals like the tiger, rhinoceros, elephant and crocodile gives us more information of the significance of these animals in the Harappan society. These seals also have inscriptions in pictographic script. Agriculture with domesticating animals was a major occupation. The location of granaries near river, where the civilization itself flourished was an important feature. The ornaments of this period worn by both men and women reflect the skilled craftsmanship of the people in the Harappan culture.
Trade
The Indus valley people maintained commercial contacts with Egypt and Crete, Mesopotamia and the towns in the Persian Gulf . Excavations at Lothal reveal the existence of a dock supporting the activities of trade in that period. Trade also existed with Northern Afghanistan from where the Harappans bought the famous blue gemstones,' Lapiz Lazuli’.
Religion
The clay seals discovered during excavation reveal the presence of a male god. The figure of a female god also suggests their beliefs on the female were source of creation. The seal with a male god wearing a head dress surrounded by various animals exhorts the belief in the male symbol of strength. The Indus valley people cremated their death. This idea has been established owing to the discovery of many urns containing human bones and ashes. In general it can be derived that worship of the forces of nature in its lively forms such as stones, strong animals was the religion they followed. This must have been the principles upon which the present day Hinduism has prescribed as its principles.
AGE, ORIGIN AND DECLINE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CULTURE
The Indus valley civilization is believed to belong to the copper Stone Age as the presence of iron tools and implements has not yet been established at any part of this civilization. Archaeological excavation indicates that the Indus valley civilization could have flourished in about 300 BC much before the existence of other West Asian civilization. Contacts with the civilization of Mesopotamia , Elam and Babylon can be deduced by the discovery of the Indus valley clay seals, pottery there. This suggests that the civilization flourished from about 3000 BC to 1500 BC.
Anthropological investigation and examination of the human remains shows that four racial types existed in this civilization. They were the proto - Australiod, Mediterranean , Alpine and the Mongoloid. Archaeological excavation reveals the existence of various racial types. Of all these the existence of the Dravidian race holds its relevance owing to its wide spread acceptance.
Decline of the Indus Valley
The Indus valley culture though existed in its modern form else where it had to submit to the ultimate ravages of time which is the universal law. The physical existence of the civilization ended due to various factors.
v Changes in the climate leading to the decline of land and agriculture, thereby enforcing the need to evacuate to other area might have been the reason for the dissertation of the Indus valley.
v Increase in population, excessive deforestation decline in agriculture etc might have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture.
v Frequent floods may have led to the devastation of the city.
v The invasion of the Aryans is the other view that is said to be another reason which might have also led to the extinction of the life in the Indus valley.
The Indus valley civilization has put India at par with the other civilization of the world, which is said to be the foundation on which the present cultures of nations are built.
PERIOD UNDER THE ARYANS
Origin of the Aryans
Opinions differ regarding the original home of the Aryans. The most accepted view is that the region between Poland to the Central Asia might have been of the Aryans. They were said to be semi- nomadic people, who started moving from their original home towards the west, south and east. The branch which went to Europe was the ancestors of the Greeks, Romans, Celts and Teutons. Another branch went to Anatolia . The great empire of the Hitties evolved from the mixture of these immigrants with the original people. The branch which remained was the ancestors of the Slavonic people. The group which moved south came to conflict with the west Asian civilization. In course of their journey towards the east or south a group of Aryans had settled in Iran India through Afghanistan and captured the greater part of the northern India Europe .
The Indo-Aryans entered Punjab and the other north-western part of India Ganga Valley Ganga and Yamuna. In due course of time the whole of northern India Purus . They settled on either side of the river Saraswati. They were involved in fighting among themselves. Besides this tribal warfare the Aryans were engaged in struggles with the dark skinned people or Dasyus. The Dasyus were the Dravidians who occupied the regions of the Indus valley civilization. The superiority of the Aryans resulted in the Dravidian submission and retirement to the south.
Political Organization
Family served as the basis of the both social and political organization. Families together formed the grama. Villages together formed are and they turn formed the janas. The community was patriarchical and each tribe was under the chief whose position was hereditary. The rastra was ruled by the king who was normally hereditary. The king led the tribe in battle, and protected the people. The Purohita was one of the important signatory. He was the sole associate of the king his friend, philosopher and guide. The Senani is the leader of the army, and Gramani is the head of the village. The main duty of the king was the protection of his subjects, property, defence and maintenance of peace. The king was not an autocrat he was controlled by two popular assemblies Sabha and Samiti. These assemblies brought forth the people's view on various issues. The Sabhas also discharged legal duties like providing justice. Individual ownership of property was recognized. The land was a property owned by the family. The property passed on in a hereditary manner from father to son.
Economic Condition
The Aryans who were semi-nomadic people also domesticated animals which helped them in the activities of agriculture and other pastoral and hunting acts. Agriculture is the major share of their economy. Canals to provide irrigation were a significant feature of this occupation. Coins were unknown and trade was through the Barter system. Craft was not a popular profession. The lack of good roads might have hampered trade, but river navigation exists. Specialization in areas such as carpentry, smithy, weaving, pottery, etc had been taking place.
LIFE IN THE ARYAN SOCIETY
Family being the basis of the Aryan social life needed to be a healthy bond. Monogamy was the usual rule but polygamy was also practiced. Women played an important role in the family. They also excelled in education. Apata Visvara and Ghosa were a few who even composed mantras. Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food was common. Wheat and barley was the common food grains. Drinks included the Soma and Sura which were intoxicating and were drunk during festivals.
The dress consisted of two or three garments- an under garment, garment and a cloak. These were made of wool or skin and colored yellow and red. Gold ornaments such as necklaces, earrings, anklets, and bracelets were common and was worn by both men and women. Women enjoyed equal status and received education with the men. They also freely participated in public life.
Religion
The Aryans worshipped many gods and goddess. Most of the objects they worshipped were the personification of the forces of nature. The religious beliefs of the Aryans and its essential elements were contained in the Rig Veda. It was based on the beliefs that the numerous gods and goddess were personifications of whatever that was noble splendid and striking in nature. The common people sought refugee under these powers who did good answer as evil. To get the good offerings as food and drinks has to be made. Fire was the means of messengers who carried the offerings to the gods. This was done amidst the chanting of hymns of praise.
There were numerous deities, classified under terrestrial, atmospheric, and celestial group. Agni, Indra and Varuna were the chief deities. They also included Agni, Vayu, Surya, Prithivi, etc. Gods and goddess were worshipped with simple ceremonials known as Yajna or sacrifices.
Extent of Aryans in India
The Aryans were said to have been spread into four divisions of the country as portrayed by Manu
Brahmavarta
Braharishi Desha
Madhya Desha
Aryavarta
v The Brahmavarta or the land of Gods
v The Braharishi Desha or the country of the holy sages comprised the territories of the Kurus, Matsya, Panchalas and Swsenas. Today they are known as Thaneshwar, Eastern Rajputana, the Doab and Mathura
v The Madhya Desa or the middle country occupied the region lying between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.
v The Aryavarta occupied the region between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas from the east to west.
Though a physical terrain segregated North and South India and resulted in the development of a Dravidian culture, yet the Aryans influenced the religious thoughts of the Dravidians.
LATER ARYAN PERIOD (VEDIC PERIOD)
The later vedic period is said to have begun after the composing of the Atharva Veda, Yajur veda and Sama veda. This period indicated changes in the political, social, economic and religious conditions of the life of the Aryans. These changes were different from those in the early vedic period during the composition of the Rig Veda.
Political Condition
The Rig Vedic Aryans were divided into several tribes. There was frequent internal strife among them. The weaker tribes were absorbed into the stronger ones and thus the kingdoms and larger areas of residence emerged. The political influence of the Aryans extended towards the east and south. The Aryan now established a powerful kingdom in the Deccan, to the north of the river Godavari . The mode of succession continued to be hereditary. The expansion of the territory also resulted in the increased domination of the king assisted by a hierarchy of nobility. These nobles were assigned official duties. Thus administrative machinery developed. The king now had a council of advisers which included the king’s relatives, his courtiers, and heads of various departments. The Purohita (the priest), the Senani (the commander), the Suta (the charioteer), the Samgrahitr (the treasurer), tax collector, etc. were the individuals which assisted in the kings activities. The role of the popular assemblies was important. A notable feature of this period was the extinction of the Samiti. The sabha transformed from being a popular village assembly, continued as a court or judicial assembly.
Social Condition
The need to perform the ceremonial yajnas required the services of highly trained priests who were skilled in the religious matters. This group came to assume the title of the Brahmanas. They occupied a high status and were respected and honoured by the king.
The constant inter tribal fighting for establishing supremacy, and struggle with the original inhabitants gave birth for the need of persons skilled in the warfare. Thus arose the new class of the Kshatriyas. Remaining people in the Aryan society were called Vaisyas. The group who were not Aryans were called Sudras. This separation in the society was on the basis of the profession they pursued. Gradually the Aryans were divided into the four varnas, succession to these in course of time became hereditary. The caste system became rigid; Education was confined to the upper classes. An Aryan's life was divided into stages which began with Upanayana, which was the inception of the pupil to education. After a period of 12 years study of the Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Ithihasa, Puranas, Grammer, Ethics etc. the individual could chose one of the four ashramas i.e. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Sanyasa, Vanaprastha.
Religious Condition
Religion and philosophy in the later Vedic period became more confirmed with elaborate sacrifices. The doctrines of Karma, Maya, Soul, Mukti were established. Brahma, Vishnu and Maheswara became the important gods who were worshipped.
LITERATURE IN THE VEDIC PERIOD
The Vedas
The Vedas were the sources of reconstructing the vedic period. The oldest being the Rig-Veda, The Samaveda, Yajurveda and Adharvaveda had their own significance. The Sama veda contains the verses from the Rig-Veda. The hymns in it were relevant to the soma sacrifice .The Yajurveda also consist of hymns from the Rig Veda, more than half of this is in prose to facilitate the performance of sacrifices. It depicts the social and religious condition of this period. The Atharva Veda contains philosophic speculations, popular cults and superstitions.
The Brahmanas
They are prose of the sacrificial ceremonies. These explanatory treatises lay emphasis on ritualism. They mark the transition from Vedic to classical Sanskrit. It also marks the period which marks the advance of the Aryans from the Panchala country to the Vidha (North Bihar).
The Vedangas and the Upavedas
These are said to be supplementary sections of the Vedic literature. These give us idea about Jotish (Astronomy), Medicine (Ayurveda), Dhanurveda (war), Gandharvaveda, (music) etc.
The Vedanta
It is the philosophy taught in most of the Upanishads.
The Upanishads
This contains the main idea that constitutes the intellectual aspect of the Hindu philosophy. They do not lay emphasis to rites, ceremonies and austerities. The Upanishads are dated between 800 BC and 500 BC. The Upanishads are about 100 in number. The Brahadaranyaka Upanishads, Chandogva Upanishad, Aitreya Upanishad are a few. The Upanishads reflects the richness and universality of the Indian culture. They are said to be the thinking power of the Brahmana and the Kshatriyas.
LITERATURE IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD
The Epics
They are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. They introduce us to a period of transformation in the social and religious institutions of the Vedic age. The Ramayana written by Valmiki is said a poetic legend based on mythology. It portrays the ideal man- god Rama and the ideal woman Sita. The sacrifices made by the characters for the preservation of truth appealed to the people.This was edited by the Brahmanas in course of time to convert it a book of devotion. The Mahabharata which consist of 18 parvas (sections) contains about 100,000 verses. This is an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion.
Puranas
These are legends connected with epics and law books. They are 18 in number and are mostly recognized in North India. The Vishnu Purana, for example, should treat of five subject’s namely primary creation, secondary creations, Genealogies of gods and patriarchs reigns of various Manus and history of ancient dynasties. The Vayupurana is one of the oldest the Puranas. It was edited during the age of Guptas when there was a great revival of the Sanskrit language. The other Puranas include Matsya and Brahmanda which gives us account of the kings up to the imperial Gupta dynasty with other contemporaries.
Laws of Manu
Also known as Manav Dhramshastra in Sanskrit, it comprises of 2684 couplets arranged in twelve chapters. It is the earliest of law books. The laws of Manu form the foundation of the court of law in India under the name of Hindu law. The book makes a distinction between varna and jatis. The Varna’s were in the order of the occupations pursued by the people. This was given as below, the learned, literate and priestly order the fighting or the governing class the trading and agricultural group the common folk, laborers. The composition of this may be between 200BC and 200AD by a sage named Bhrigu.
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